Plague, Fire, Science and Witchcraft: KS3 History Study Pack

1. Introduction

Early modern Britain was a world of new ideas and old fears. Between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, people still explained many disasters through religion, bad air, astrology, magic, or local rumours. At the same time, more scholars, doctors and natural philosophers began to argue that knowledge should be tested through observation, experiment and evidence.

This study pack focuses on four connected themes:

• the Great Plague of London in 1665
• the Great Fire of London in 1666
• witchcraft beliefs and accusations
• the Scientific Revolution and changing ideas about evidence

These topics help us understand early modern people on their own terms. It is easy to laugh at beliefs that seem strange today, such as miasma or witchcraft. A better historical approach is to ask why those beliefs made sense to many people at the time. Early modern people lived with limited medical knowledge, high death rates, strong religious beliefs, weak policing, local tensions, poverty and frequent disease. Their explanations were often wrong, but they were not usually random.

The period also shows change and continuity. There was change because some people used microscopes, experiments, printed books and scientific societies to investigate the natural world. There was continuity because older ideas, such as divine punishment, bad smells causing illness, and fear of witches, continued alongside newer approaches.

By the end of this pack, you should be able to explain:

• how plague spread and how people responded to it
• why the Great Fire spread so quickly and what changed afterwards
• why some people were accused of witchcraft
• how the Royal Society and Scientific Revolution encouraged new ways of thinking
• why older beliefs did not disappear overnight

2. Key Definitions

Word	Meaning
Plague	A serious infectious disease. In 1665 London suffered an outbreak of bubonic plague, linked to bacteria spread by fleas on rats, though people at the time did not understand this fully.
Quarantine	Keeping people, ships, goods or houses separate for a period of time to stop disease spreading.
Miasma	The belief that disease was caused by bad or poisonous air, often linked to foul smells.
Epidemic	A disease outbreak that spreads quickly through a community or region.
Witchcraft	The supposed use of magical powers, often believed to be helped by the Devil.
Accusation	A claim that someone has done something wrong, whether or not it is true.
Superstition	A belief based on fear, tradition or the supernatural rather than tested evidence. Use this word carefully: historians try to understand why people held such beliefs.
Evidence	Information used to support a conclusion. Historical evidence can include documents, objects, buildings, images, maps, statistics and eyewitness accounts.
Experiment	A test carried out to investigate an idea or explanation.
Observation	Careful watching, measuring or recording of something.
Royal Society	A scientific society founded in 1660 in London to promote observation, experiment and shared evidence.
Rebuilding	Constructing again after destruction. After the Great Fire, London was rebuilt with new rules about materials, street width and fire prevention.
Public health	Actions taken by authorities or communities to protect people from disease.
Household remedy	A medicine or treatment made and used at home, often from herbs, food, drink or traditional recipes.
Natural philosopher	A term used before the word scientist became common. Natural philosophers studied nature, the body, the heavens and the physical world.
Provenance	Where a source comes from: who made it, when, why, for whom, and in what situation.
Interpretation	A view or explanation of the past, often created by historians, writers, museums, films or textbooks.

3. Timeline / Chronology

Date	Event	Why it matters
1542	First English Witchcraft Act under Henry VIII	Made some forms of witchcraft a serious crime in law.
1563	Witchcraft Act under Elizabeth I	Continued legal punishment for witchcraft, especially if harm was believed to have been caused.
1603-1625	Reign of James I	James I was strongly interested in witchcraft and wrote about it.
1604	Witchcraft Act under James I	Made punishments harsher and reflected strong fear of witchcraft.
1620s-1640s	Growing use of experiment and observation in European natural philosophy	Helped prepare the way for the Scientific Revolution.
1645-1647	Matthew Hopkins and witch-hunting in East Anglia	A major burst of witchcraft accusations during the Civil War period.
1660	Royal Society founded	Encouraged shared experiments, observation and evidence.
1665	Great Plague of London	Killed tens of thousands and tested public health responses.
1666	Great Fire of London	Destroyed much of the old City of London but led to rebuilding and fire regulations.
1676	Rebuilding of St Paul's Cathedral began under Christopher Wren	Symbol of the rebuilding of London after the Fire.
1680s-1700s	Witchcraft accusations declined in England	Courts became more doubtful about evidence for witchcraft.
1736	Witchcraft laws repealed in Britain	Witchcraft was no longer treated as a real magical crime in the same legal way.

Simple chronology:

Medieval ideas continue -> early modern religious and magical beliefs -> witchcraft trials and local accusations -> Royal Society founded -> Great Plague -> Great Fire -> rebuilding and stronger interest in practical evidence

4. Core Knowledge Sections

4.1 Early Modern Beliefs About Disaster

Early modern people did not have modern germ theory. Germ theory is the modern understanding that many diseases are caused by microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. This idea was not properly developed until the nineteenth century, long after the Great Plague and Great Fire.

Instead, people used a mixture of explanations:

• religious explanations: disasters might be punishments from God for sin
• miasma: bad smells or polluted air might cause disease
• astrology: the movement of planets and stars might influence events on Earth
• imbalance in the body: illness might be caused by the four humours being out of balance
• witchcraft: misfortune might be caused by harmful magic
• practical observation: people noticed disease spread through contact, movement and crowded places

These explanations often overlapped. A Londoner in 1665 might believe that plague was God's punishment, that foul air helped spread it, and that infected houses should still be shut up. This mixture is important. Historical change is rarely simple.

4.2 The Great Plague of 1665: Causes and Spread

The Great Plague of London was one of the last major plague outbreaks in England. It reached its worst point in 1665. Around 100,000 people may have died in London, though exact numbers are debated because record keeping was imperfect.

Modern historians and scientists understand plague as a bacterial disease. Bubonic plague is linked to the bacterium Yersinia pestis, often spread by fleas carried by rats. However, early modern Londoners did not know this. They saw sudden illness, painful swellings called buboes, fever, weakness and death.

Several factors helped the disease spread:

• London was crowded, with many narrow streets and cramped homes.
• Waste and rubbish were common in streets and yards.
• Rats and fleas could live near people, food stores and rubbish.
• People moved in and out of the city for work and trade.
• Poorer families often lived close together, making separation difficult.
• Some infected people moved before symptoms were obvious.

The plague did not affect everyone equally. Wealthier people could sometimes leave London for the countryside. Poorer people were more likely to stay, work, share crowded housing and depend on parish support.

4.3 Responses to the Great Plague

Authorities tried several methods to control the disease. Some were based on observation and practical experience, even if the science behind them was limited.

Common responses included:

• shutting up infected houses
• marking doors with a red cross and writing warnings
• appointing watchmen to stop people leaving infected homes
• quarantine for people or goods believed to be risky
• killing cats and dogs, wrongly blamed for spreading disease
• burning fires or herbs to clean the air
• cleaning streets and removing waste
• publishing weekly Bills of Mortality listing deaths
• closing some public gatherings
• using household remedies, prayers and fasting

Some responses helped a little, especially separation and reducing contact. Others did not help or even made things worse. Killing cats and dogs, for example, may have reduced animals that hunted rats. Burning herbs did not kill plague bacteria, but it fitted the belief that bad air caused disease.

The policy of shutting up houses was especially harsh. If one person in a household showed plague symptoms, the whole house could be locked for weeks. This could trap healthy people with infected relatives. It also made some families hide symptoms to avoid being shut in.

4.4 Impact of the Great Plague

The Great Plague had serious consequences:

• many people died, especially among poorer communities
• trade and daily work were disrupted
• fear and suspicion increased
• families were separated or trapped in infected homes
• local parishes had to organise relief for the poor
• people debated the causes of disease and the effectiveness of public health orders

The plague also reveals much about early modern society. It shows the limits of medical knowledge, the importance of religion, the power of local government, and the inequality between rich and poor.

4.5 The Great Fire of London 1666: Causes

The Great Fire began in the early hours of 2 September 1666 in a bakery in Pudding Lane, owned by Thomas Farriner. It spread across the City of London and burned for several days. By the time it was under control, it had destroyed thousands of homes, many churches, guild halls and St Paul's Cathedral.

The Fire spread quickly because of several connected causes:

• many houses were made of timber
• upper floors often leaned out over narrow streets
• streets were crowded and hard to move through
• there had been a dry summer
• strong winds pushed the flames westward
• firefighting equipment was limited
• early attempts to create firebreaks were delayed
• stored materials such as pitch, tar, oil and timber caught fire easily

The Fire was not caused by a single factor. It was the result of human choices, weather conditions, building materials, city layout and slow decision-making.

4.6 The Great Fire: Events

The Fire began at Pudding Lane and spread west. Many people tried to escape with their belongings. Samuel Pepys, a naval official and diarist, recorded the Fire in his diary. His account is valuable because he was in London at the time and described what he saw and heard.

Firefighting depended on buckets, hooks, water squirts and demolition. Creating firebreaks meant pulling down buildings to stop flames spreading. This was difficult because owners did not want their houses destroyed unless they were sure it was necessary. The Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Bloodworth, was criticised for not acting decisively enough in the early stages.

King Charles II and his brother James, Duke of York, became involved in organising firefighting. Eventually, firebreaks, changing winds and the burning out of fuel helped stop the Fire.

4.7 Consequences and Rebuilding After the Fire

The Great Fire destroyed a huge part of the old City, but recorded deaths were surprisingly low. This does not mean the Fire was not serious. Many people lost homes, goods, workshops, records and places of worship.

Consequences included:

• about 13,000 houses destroyed
• around 87 parish churches destroyed
• St Paul's Cathedral destroyed
• thousands left homeless
• stronger building regulations
• wider streets in some areas
• more use of brick and stone instead of timber
• fire insurance developed more quickly
• fire marks and organised firefighting became more common later
• Christopher Wren helped redesign major buildings, especially churches and St Paul's Cathedral

There were ambitious plans to rebuild London with grand boulevards and a new street layout. However, much of London was rebuilt along old property lines because land ownership was complicated and people needed to rebuild quickly.

The Fire did not simply "solve" the plague. The major plague outbreak had already declined by the time of the Fire. Some people later believed the Fire cleaned the city, but historians are careful about this claim. The Fire destroyed many old buildings and some areas where rats might have lived, but it should not be treated as a simple cure.

4.8 Early Modern Medicine and Public Health

Medicine in early modern Britain mixed old and new ideas. Many doctors still used theories from ancient writers such as Hippocrates and Galen. They believed health depended on balancing the four humours:

• blood
• phlegm
• yellow bile
• black bile

If the humours were out of balance, doctors might recommend bleeding, purging, diet changes or herbal medicines. Some treatments were harmful, some were harmless, and some may have helped symptoms.

Public health was practical but limited. Authorities could:

• order streets to be cleaned
• inspect houses
• regulate markets
• quarantine ships or households
• collect death statistics
• appoint searchers to inspect bodies
• publish orders about behaviour during epidemics

These actions show that people were not passive. Even without germ theory, they tried to respond to patterns they observed.

4.9 Witchcraft Beliefs

Belief in witchcraft was widespread in early modern Europe, including England and Scotland. Many people believed witches made a pact with the Devil and used harmful magic to injure people, animals or crops.

Witchcraft accusations often grew out of local tensions. A person might be accused after:

• a child became ill
• livestock died
• butter or beer spoiled
• a crop failed
• a neighbourly argument took place
• someone refused charity
• a poor or unpopular person was already suspected

Many accused people were women, especially older or poorer women, but not all accused witches were the same. Some men were accused too. Gender mattered because women were often linked in popular belief to household work, healing, childbirth, food and local gossip. Poverty mattered because poor neighbours might rely on charity and become resented. Local tensions mattered because accusations often followed arguments.

It is important not to treat all accusations as identical. Some came from personal disputes. Some reflected fear during crisis. Some were shaped by religion, law, politics or local reputation.

4.10 Matthew Hopkins and East Anglia

Matthew Hopkins was a witch-finder active mainly in East Anglia during the 1640s, especially 1645-1647. This was during the English Civil War, a time of political conflict, religious fear, weak local order and social stress.

Hopkins called himself the "Witchfinder General", though this was not an official government title. He and his associates investigated suspected witches, questioned people and looked for supposed signs of witchcraft. Methods included searching bodies for "witch marks" and watching suspects. These methods were unreliable and often cruel.

East Anglia saw many accusations during this period. Historians link this to:

• the disruption of the Civil War
• strong Puritan religious beliefs in some areas
• fear of the Devil
• local quarrels and resentments
• weak central authority
• Hopkins and others encouraging accusations

At KS3 level, the key point is that witch-hunting was not just caused by "silly beliefs". It was connected to fear, religion, law, gender, poverty, war and local relationships.

4.11 The Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution was a broad change in how some people studied the natural world. It was not a single event and did not affect everyone equally. It involved growing interest in:

• observation
• measurement
• experiment
• mathematics
• shared evidence
• debate
• printed knowledge
• instruments such as telescopes, microscopes and air pumps

In England, the Royal Society was founded in 1660. Its members promoted experiments and shared results. Their motto later became "Nullius in verba", meaning roughly "take nobody's word for it". This suggested that claims should be tested rather than accepted only because an ancient writer or powerful person said so.

This did not mean everyone became modern scientists. Many natural philosophers were religious. Some still believed in ideas we would now reject. However, the Royal Society helped strengthen the habit of asking: What did you observe? How did you test it? Can others check it?

4.12 Change and Continuity in Ideas

The seventeenth century was a period of both change and continuity.

What changed:

• more people valued experiment and observation
• scientific societies shared evidence
• printed books spread knowledge faster
• some courts became more cautious about witchcraft evidence
• public health authorities collected more information, such as death statistics
• rebuilding after the Fire used more regulation and planning

What stayed similar:

• many people still used religious explanations
• miasma remained influential
• household remedies continued
• astrology and magical beliefs did not disappear
• class and gender affected people's experiences of crisis
• medicine still relied heavily on older theories

A strong historical answer avoids saying "science replaced superstition". A better explanation is: new evidence-based methods became more important, but older beliefs continued for a long time.

5. People, Places and Events

Key People

Person	Role	Significance
Charles II	King of England during the Great Plague and Great Fire	His government issued plague orders and he helped organise responses during the Fire.
Samuel Pepys	Diarist and naval official	His diary gives detailed evidence about London life, the Plague and the Fire.
Thomas Farriner	Baker in Pudding Lane	The Great Fire began in his bakery in September 1666.
Sir Thomas Bloodworth	Lord Mayor of London in 1666	Criticised for slow early action during the Fire.
Christopher Wren	Architect	Helped rebuild churches and designed the new St Paul's Cathedral.
Matthew Hopkins	Witch-finder in the 1640s	Associated with a major wave of witchcraft accusations in East Anglia.
Robert Hooke	Natural philosopher and Royal Society member	Used observation and instruments; helped survey London after the Fire.
Robert Boyle	Natural philosopher	Known for experiments, especially with air pumps; connected to Royal Society science.

Key Places

Place	Why it matters
London	Largest city in England; centre of plague and fire in 1665-1666.
Pudding Lane	Street where the Great Fire began.
St Paul's Cathedral	Destroyed in the Fire and later rebuilt by Christopher Wren.
East Anglia	Region strongly associated with Matthew Hopkins and witchcraft accusations in the 1640s.
Royal Society meeting spaces in London	Places where natural philosophers discussed experiments and evidence.

Key Events

Event	Causes	Consequences
Great Plague, 1665	Crowding, fleas and rats, trade, movement, limited medical knowledge	Mass death, fear, quarantine, public health orders, economic disruption
Great Fire, 1666	Timber buildings, narrow streets, dry weather, wind, delayed firebreaks	Destruction, homelessness, rebuilding regulations, more brick and stone
East Anglian witch-hunts, 1645-1647	War, religious fear, local tensions, poverty, Hopkins's activities	Trials, executions, fear, later criticism of unreliable evidence
Founding of Royal Society, 1660	Growing interest in experiment and natural philosophy	Stronger culture of observation, testing and shared evidence

6. Sources and Evidence

Historians use sources carefully. A source can be useful even if it is biased, mistaken or incomplete. The key is to ask what it can and cannot tell us.

Useful source questions:

• Who made it?
• When was it made?
• Why was it made?
• Who was the audience?
• What does it say or show?
• What is left out?
• How does it fit the wider context?

Source A: Plague Order Extract

This is an invented but historically plausible extract based on the kind of public health orders used in plague outbreaks.

"If any person in a house is found to have the sickness, the house shall be shut for a set number of days. A red cross shall be placed upon the door, and a watchman shall remain nearby to prevent movement. The streets shall be kept clean, and gatherings shall be avoided where possible."

Questions:

1. What does Source A say should happen to an infected house?
2. What does the red cross on the door suggest about how authorities wanted to warn people?
3. How might this order help stop disease spreading?
4. Why might poor families have suffered especially badly under this order?
5. How useful is this source for learning about public health in 1665? Explain one strength and one limitation.

Source B: Great Fire Map-Style Sketch

A simplified sketch of the spread of the Fire:

East London West London

Pudding Lane -> Thames Street -> City churches -> St Paul's -> Fleet area

River Thames: ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Wind direction: >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>

Key:

• Fire began near Pudding Lane.
• Wind pushed flames westward.
• The Thames helped some people escape by boat, but riverside warehouses also contained flammable goods.

Questions:

1. Where did the Fire begin?
2. In which general direction did the Fire spread?
3. How did the wind affect the Fire?
4. Why could the Thames be both helpful and dangerous during the Fire?
5. What does the sketch leave out that a real map might show?

Source C: Samuel Pepys-Style Diary Extract

This is adapted and invented in the style of a diary account. It is not a direct quotation from Samuel Pepys.

"I went towards the river and saw a great light in the sky. People carried chests, bedding and papers, and many called for boats. The heat was strong, and the streets were full of noise and fear. Some said houses must be pulled down, but others cried that their homes should be spared."

Questions:

1. What does Source C suggest people were trying to save?
2. What can you infer about the mood in London?
3. Why might some people oppose pulling down houses?
4. How useful is a diary-style source for studying the Fire?
5. Why must historians be careful with eyewitness accounts?

Source D: Witchcraft Accusation Source

This is an invented but historically plausible local accusation.

"After Goody Miller was refused a loaf at the door, she spoke angrily against the household. Within three days the cow gave no milk and the youngest child fell into a fever. Neighbours say she has long been a troublesome woman and keeps strange company."

Questions:

1. What events are linked together in this accusation?
2. What does the source suggest about poverty and charity?
3. What evidence in the source is weak or based on rumour?
4. Why might neighbours believe the accusation in the seventeenth century?
5. How could a historian use this source to study local tensions?

Source E: Science and Evidence Comparison Table

Question	Older or traditional approach	Evidence-focused approach
Why did disease spread?	Bad air, sin, imbalance, astrology	Observe patterns of infection, record deaths, test possible causes
How should claims be checked?	Trust ancient writers, authorities or local tradition	Repeat experiments and compare observations
What counts as proof?	Reputation, confession, signs, religious explanation	Measured results, witnessed experiments, careful records
Who shares knowledge?	Local healers, clergy, universities, printed books	Scientific societies, letters, journals, demonstrations

Questions:

1. What changed in how some people checked explanations?
2. What older ideas continued during the seventeenth century?
3. Why was shared evidence important?
4. How does this table help explain the Royal Society?
5. What is one limitation of using a simple comparison table?

7. Interpretations

An interpretation is a later explanation of the past. Different interpretations can exist because historians ask different questions, use different evidence, or focus on different groups.

Interpretation 1: "The Great Fire was a disaster that destroyed old London."

This interpretation focuses on loss. It is supported by evidence that thousands of houses, churches and workplaces were destroyed. Many people became homeless. Records, goods and businesses were lost.

Strength:

• It reminds us that the Fire caused real suffering.

Limitation:

• It may underplay rebuilding, regulation and long-term change.

Interpretation 2: "The Great Fire helped create a safer, more modern London."

This interpretation focuses on change after the Fire. It is supported by evidence of new building regulations, wider streets in some areas, more brick and stone, and Wren's rebuilding projects.

Strength:

• It explains important consequences.

Limitation:

• It can make the Fire sound more positive than it felt to people who lost everything.

Interpretation 3: "Witchcraft accusations were mostly caused by ignorance."

This interpretation is too simple. It may seem convincing because witchcraft was not real in the way accusers believed. However, it ignores the context of fear, poverty, gender, religion, illness, war and local disputes.

A stronger interpretation is:

"Witchcraft accusations happened because early modern beliefs about the Devil combined with local tensions, poverty, gender expectations and weak evidence."

Interpretation 4: "Science replaced superstition in the seventeenth century."

This interpretation is also too simple. The Scientific Revolution changed how some educated people investigated nature, but older beliefs remained strong. Many people used religious, magical and practical explanations at the same time.

A stronger interpretation is:

"In the seventeenth century, evidence-based thinking became more influential, especially among natural philosophers, but older explanations continued alongside it."

8. Tables

Comparing Plague and Fire

Feature	Great Plague, 1665	Great Fire, 1666
Type of crisis	Disease epidemic	Urban fire
Main location	London	City of London
Main causes	Infection spread by fleas/rats, crowding, movement, poor sanitation	Timber buildings, narrow streets, dry weather, wind, flammable goods
Contemporary explanations	Sin, miasma, contact, astrology	Accident, punishment, blame, rumours
Government response	Quarantine, shut houses, plague orders, Bills of Mortality	Firebreaks, firefighting, emergency action, rebuilding laws
Impact	Tens of thousands dead, fear, economic disruption	Buildings destroyed, homelessness, rebuilding
Long-term change	More attention to public health records and control measures	Building regulations, brick and stone, fire insurance

Comparing Medieval and Early Modern Explanations

Issue	Medieval period	Early modern period
Religion	Very important in explaining disaster	Still very important
Miasma	Common belief	Still common
Astrology	Used by some educated people	Still used by some
Practical quarantine	Used in some places	Used more formally in plague orders
Experiment	Limited compared with later periods	Became more important among natural philosophers
Printing	Less available before the printing press spread	Printed books and pamphlets spread ideas quickly
Witchcraft belief	Present	Strong in some areas, but later declined

Why Were People Accused of Witchcraft?

Factor	Explanation	Example
Gender	Many accused people were women, especially older women, because of gendered ideas about weakness, disorder, healing and household conflict.	A poor widow with a bad local reputation might be vulnerable.
Poverty	Poor people often depended on neighbours for help, which could create resentment.	A refusal of charity might be followed by an accusation.
Religion	Belief in the Devil made witchcraft seem possible and dangerous.	Ministers might warn against Satan's work.
Local tension	Accusations often followed arguments.	A quarrel before an illness could be remembered as suspicious.
Crisis	War, disease and economic stress increased fear.	East Anglia during the Civil War saw many accusations.
Weak evidence	Rumour, marks, confessions under pressure and coincidence were treated as evidence.	A cow dying after an argument might be blamed on magic.

Science, Medicine and Public Health

Area	Continuity	Change
Disease explanation	Miasma and religious explanations continued.	More records and observations were used.
Treatment	Household remedies and humoral medicine continued.	More interest in anatomy, instruments and experiment.
Public health	Quarantine and cleaning were not new ideas.	Authorities used more printed orders and death statistics.
Evidence	Reputation and authority still mattered.	Experiment and repeated observation gained status.

9. Text/ASCII Diagrams or Timelines

Plague Spread Diagram

Rats near food and rubbish

    |
    v

Fleas carry infection

    |
    v

Fleas bite people

    |
    v

Illness spreads in crowded homes and streets

    |
    v

Fear, quarantine, death records and public health orders

Cause-Consequence Chain for Fire Rebuilding

Timber houses + narrow streets + dry weather + wind

    |
    v

Fire spreads rapidly through the City

    |
    v

Homes, churches and businesses destroyed

    |
    v

Need to rebuild quickly but more safely

    |
    v

New rules: more brick and stone, limits on overhanging buildings, some wider streets

    |
    v

London rebuilt with a mixture of old street patterns and new safety measures

Belief Systems Comparison

Religious explanation: Disaster -> punishment or warning from God -> prayer, repentance, fasting

Miasma explanation: Disaster/disease -> bad air or foul smells -> fires, herbs, cleaning streets

Witchcraft explanation: Misfortune -> harmful magic by a suspected person -> accusation, trial, punishment

Evidence-focused explanation: Problem -> observe patterns -> test ideas -> share results -> revise explanation

Change and Continuity Scale

More continuity More change

Religious belief ---- miasma ---- quarantine ---- printed orders ---- Royal Society experiments

The scale shows that different ideas could exist at the same time. A person might accept quarantine and still believe plague was a divine warning.

10. Common Mistakes

Mistake 1: Mocking Past Beliefs

Weak answer:

"People were stupid because they believed in bad air and witches."

Better answer:

"People had limited scientific knowledge and used religious, medical and local explanations that fitted their world. Some beliefs were inaccurate, but they made sense in a society with high death rates, strong religion and limited evidence."

Mistake 2: Saying Science Replaced Older Beliefs Overnight

Science did not suddenly defeat older ideas in 1660 or 1666. The Royal Society mattered, but most people still used older explanations. Change was gradual and uneven.

Mistake 3: Confusing Plague and Fire Chronology

The Great Plague was in 1665. The Great Fire was in 1666. The Fire did not begin the plague. The plague outbreak had already declined before the Fire.

Mistake 4: Treating Disaster as Purely Natural

Plague and Fire involved natural factors, but human factors mattered too. Crowded housing, rubbish, building materials, street layout, trade and government decisions all shaped what happened.

Mistake 5: Thinking All Accused Witches Were the Same

Many accused witches were poor or older women, but not all were. Accusations varied by region, time and local situation. Some men were accused. Local relationships mattered.

Mistake 6: Using Sources Without Provenance

Do not only say what a source says. Ask who made it, when, why and for whom. A diary, law, rumour, map and trial record all have different strengths and limitations.

Mistake 7: Describing Instead of Explaining

Description says what happened. Explanation says why it happened or why it mattered.

Description:

"The Fire destroyed many houses."

Explanation:

"The Fire destroyed many houses because timber buildings, narrow streets, dry weather and strong winds allowed flames to spread quickly."

11. Exam Tips

Command Words

Command word	What to do
Describe	Give accurate details about what happened or what something was like.
Explain	Give reasons and link them clearly to consequences. Use "because", "therefore" and "this meant that".
Compare	Identify similarities and differences.
How far	Make a judgement. Explain both sides before reaching a supported conclusion.
How useful	Discuss what a source helps you learn and what its limits are. Mention provenance and content.
Why	Give causes. Try to include more than one factor.
What changed	Identify change and continuity.
How significant	Judge importance using criteria such as scale, depth, duration and consequences.

Writing Strong Paragraphs

Use this structure:

• Point: answer the question directly.
• Evidence: include a precise fact, date, source detail or example.
• Explain: show why the evidence matters.
• Link: connect back to the question.

Example:

"One reason the Great Fire spread quickly was the design of London streets. Many streets were narrow and houses were built from timber, with upper floors leaning out. This meant flames could move easily from building to building, especially when strong winds blew the fire west. Therefore, the Fire was not just an accident in one bakery; it became a major disaster because of the city's layout."

Source Use Tips

For source questions, include:

• what the source says or shows
• a short quotation or precise detail
• an inference
• provenance
• a limitation

Example:

"Source D suggests that witchcraft accusations could grow from local arguments because the accusation begins after Goody Miller is refused food. This is useful because it shows a link between poverty, charity and suspicion. However, it is limited because it gives only the neighbours' view and uses rumour rather than reliable proof."

Significance Tips

To judge significance, consider:

• How many people were affected?
• How deeply were they affected?
• How long did the consequences last?
• Did it lead to wider change?
• Does it reveal something important about society?

12. Practice Questions

12.1 Quick Recall Questions

1. In what year was the Great Plague of London?
2. In what year was the Great Fire of London?
3. Where did the Great Fire begin?
4. What was miasma?
5. What is quarantine?
6. What was the Royal Society?
7. Who was Samuel Pepys?
8. Who was Matthew Hopkins?
9. Name one reason the Great Fire spread quickly.
10. Name one response to plague.
11. What were Bills of Mortality?
12. What did many people believe witches could do?
13. Name one group especially vulnerable to witchcraft accusations.
14. What material was used more in rebuilding London after the Fire?
15. What is observation?
16. What is an experiment?
17. Why were narrow streets dangerous in 1666?
18. Why might poor Londoners have suffered badly during plague?
19. What does provenance mean?
20. Give one example of continuity in seventeenth-century beliefs.

12.2 Multiple Choice Questions

Choose the best answer for each question.

1. The Great Plague of London happened mainly in:

   • A. 1565
   • B. 1605
   • C. 1665
   • D. 1765

2. The Great Fire of London began in:

   • A. Westminster Abbey
   • B. Pudding Lane
   • C. St Paul's Cathedral
   • D. East Anglia

3. Miasma means:

   • A. disease caused by bad air
   • B. disease caused by cold water
   • C. a royal law
   • D. a type of fire engine

4. Quarantine means:

   • A. rebuilding a city
   • B. separating people or goods to stop disease spreading
   • C. accusing someone of witchcraft
   • D. writing a diary

5. Which factor helped plague spread in London?

   • A. wide empty streets
   • B. crowded housing
   • C. modern hospitals
   • D. electric lighting

6. Which animal was wrongly blamed and killed during the plague?

   • A. cats and dogs
   • B. horses only
   • C. sheep only
   • D. pigeons

7. A red cross on a door during plague usually meant:

   • A. the house was newly built
   • B. the house was infected
   • C. the house belonged to the king
   • D. the house was for sale

8. The Royal Society was founded in:

   • A. 1509
   • B. 1603
   • C. 1660
   • D. 1745

9. The Royal Society encouraged:

   • A. only copying ancient books
   • B. observation and experiment
   • C. banning all medicine
   • D. witch-hunting

10. Samuel Pepys is useful to historians because:

• A. he wrote a diary
• B. he built St Paul's Cathedral
• C. he started the Fire
• D. he discovered bacteria

11. One reason the Fire spread quickly was:

• A. heavy rain
• B. strong wind
• C. stone towers only
• D. empty streets

12. Firebreaks were created by:

• A. pulling down buildings
• B. building more timber houses
• C. closing schools only
• D. printing newspapers

13. Christopher Wren is linked to:

• A. designing the new St Paul's Cathedral
• B. discovering fleas
• C. leading witch trials in East Anglia
• D. writing Bills of Mortality

14. After the Fire, London used more:

• A. straw and cloth
• B. brick and stone
• C. paper walls
• D. wooden roofs only

15. Witchcraft accusations often followed:

• A. local quarrels
• B. space travel
• C. modern elections
• D. railway strikes

16. Many accused witches were:

• A. wealthy young nobles only
• B. older or poorer women
• C. foreign kings only
• D. trained scientists

17. Matthew Hopkins was active mainly in:

• A. East Anglia
• B. Wales in 1800
• C. Roman Britain
• D. Scotland in 1900

18. Hopkins was active during:

• A. the English Civil War period
• B. the First World War
• C. the Norman Conquest
• D. the Industrial Revolution

19. A weak form of witchcraft evidence was:

• A. careful repeated experiment
• B. rumour after a quarrel
• C. modern fingerprinting
• D. video recording

20. The Scientific Revolution was:

• A. a sudden event on one day
• B. a broad change in investigating nature
• C. a law banning doctors
• D. the rebuilding of London Bridge

21. Observation means:

• A. careful watching and recording
• B. guessing without evidence
• C. accusing a neighbour
• D. destroying houses

22. An experiment is:

• A. a test used to investigate an idea
• B. a prayer book only
• C. a plague house
• D. a witch mark

23. A good source answer should mention:

• A. provenance
• B. only the title
• C. only modern opinions
• D. no evidence

24. Which statement is most accurate?

• A. Everyone stopped believing in miasma in 1660.
• B. Older beliefs and newer scientific methods existed together.
• C. The Fire happened before the Plague.
• D. Witchcraft accusations were all identical.

25. The Bills of Mortality recorded:

• A. death numbers and causes
• B. recipes only
• C. building plans only
• D. royal family trees only

26. One religious explanation for plague was:

• A. punishment from God
• B. electricity
• C. steam engines
• D. vaccination

27. One reason household remedies were common was:

• A. many people relied on traditional medicine and local knowledge
• B. nobody ever became ill
• C. all hospitals were modern
• D. doctors had germ theory

28. Why is it wrong to say the Fire simply "cured" the plague?

• A. The plague had already declined, and the relationship is more complex.
• B. The Fire happened in 1500.
• C. The Fire destroyed no buildings.
• D. The plague was a type of fire.

29. Which factor connects witchcraft accusations to society?

• A. poverty and local tension
• B. television
• C. steam trains
• D. modern antibiotics

30. A strong "how far did ideas change?" answer should include:

• A. both change and continuity
• B. only one sentence
• C. no examples
• D. only jokes about past beliefs

31. Which source would be most useful for an eyewitness view of the Fire?

• A. a diary written in 1666
• B. a school poster from 2020 only
• C. a modern fictional cartoon only
• D. a list of Roman emperors

32. Which statement about early modern medicine is accurate?

• A. It mixed older theories, household remedies and some new observations.
• B. It was identical to modern medicine.
• C. It had no religious ideas.
• D. It never used herbs.

12.3 Source Questions

Use Source A in Section 6.

1. What does the source say should be placed on the door of an infected house?
2. What can you infer about how authorities tried to control movement?
3. Explain one way the order might help and one way it might harm people.
4. How useful is Source A for studying responses to plague?

Use Source C in Section 6.

5. What does the source suggest about how people reacted to the Fire?
6. Use one detail from the source to support your answer.
7. Why might a diary be useful for studying emotions during a crisis?
8. What is one limitation of a diary?

Use Source D in Section 6.

9. What accusation is being suggested?
10. How does the source link charity and suspicion?
11. Why is the evidence in the source unreliable?
12. What does the source suggest about local tensions?

12.4 Short Answer Questions

1. Describe two symptoms or effects associated with plague.
2. Explain one reason plague spread in London.
3. Describe one public health response to plague.
4. Explain one reason shutting up houses was controversial.
5. Describe two reasons the Great Fire spread quickly.
6. Explain one consequence of the Great Fire.
7. Describe one change in London after rebuilding.
8. Explain one reason people believed in witchcraft.
9. Explain one reason women were often vulnerable to witchcraft accusations.
10. Describe one method used by witch-finders.
11. Explain why Matthew Hopkins became significant.
12. Describe one aim of the Royal Society.
13. Explain one difference between miasma and germ theory.
14. Explain one way early modern ideas changed in the seventeenth century.
15. Explain one way older beliefs continued.

12.5 Longer Written Questions

1. Explain why the Great Plague spread so seriously in London in 1665.
2. How significant was the Great Fire of London?
3. Why did people accuse others of witchcraft in early modern England?
4. Compare religious explanations and evidence-focused explanations of disease and disaster.
5. How far did ideas about science and evidence change in the seventeenth century?
6. How useful are eyewitness-style sources for studying the Great Fire?
7. Explain the consequences of the Great Fire for the rebuilding of London.
8. "The main reason for witchcraft accusations was poverty." How far do you agree?

13. Answer Key

Quick Recall Answers

3. Pudding Lane.
4. The belief that disease was caused by bad air.
5. Separating people or goods to stop disease spreading.
6. A scientific society founded in 1660 to promote observation and experiment.
7. A diarist and naval official whose diary described events in London.
8. A witch-finder active in East Anglia in the 1640s.
9. Timber buildings, narrow streets, dry weather, strong wind or delayed firebreaks.
10. Quarantine, shutting houses, red crosses on doors, cleaning streets, Bills of Mortality, prayer or burning herbs.
11. Weekly records of deaths and causes.
12. Harm people, animals, crops or households using magic.
13. Older women, poorer people, unpopular neighbours or socially isolated people.
14. Brick and stone.
15. Careful watching, measuring or recording.
16. A test used to investigate an idea.
17. They allowed fire to move quickly between buildings.
18. They often lived in crowded housing and could not easily leave.
19. Information about where a source comes from, including who made it, when and why.
20. Religious explanations, miasma, household remedies or belief in witchcraft.

Multiple Choice Answers

1. C
2. B
3. A
4. B
5. B
6. A
7. B
8. C
9. B
10. A
11. B
12. A
13. A
14. B
15. A
16. B
17. A
18. A
19. B
20. B
21. A
22. A
23. A
24. B
25. A
26. A
27. A
28. A
29. A
30. A
31. A
32. A

Short Answer Guidance

Good short answers should:

• use accurate dates and vocabulary
• give more than one cause where needed
• link cause to consequence
• avoid mocking past beliefs
• include evidence, not just opinion

14. Model Answers

Model Answer 1: Explain why the Great Plague spread so seriously in London in 1665.

The Great Plague spread seriously in London because the city was crowded and dirty by modern standards. Many people lived close together in narrow streets and cramped houses. This made it easier for infected fleas and rats to live near people, food and rubbish. Although people at the time did not understand bacteria, these conditions helped the disease spread.

Another reason was movement. London was a centre of trade, work and travel, so people and goods moved in and out of the city. Some people could carry infection before others realised how dangerous they were. Poorer Londoners were especially vulnerable because they were less able to leave the city or isolate safely.

The authorities did introduce plague orders, such as shutting infected houses and marking doors. These measures show that people tried to control the outbreak. However, shutting up houses could trap healthy people with infected relatives and encourage families to hide symptoms. Therefore, the plague spread because of disease, environment, poverty, movement and the limits of public health knowledge.

Model Answer 2: How significant was the Great Fire of London?

The Great Fire of London was highly significant because it destroyed a large part of the old City. Around 13,000 houses and many churches were destroyed, including old St Paul's Cathedral. This caused homelessness and the loss of goods, workplaces and records. For people living through it, the Fire was a major disaster.

The Fire was also significant because it led to changes in rebuilding. New rules encouraged the use of brick and stone rather than timber. Some streets became wider, and overhanging buildings were restricted. Christopher Wren helped rebuild important churches and designed the new St Paul's Cathedral. These changes made parts of London safer and more planned than before.

However, the Fire did not completely transform London. Much of the city was rebuilt along old property lines because people needed to rebuild quickly and land ownership was complicated. Overall, the Fire was significant because it caused huge destruction and encouraged safer rebuilding, but it did not create a completely new city from scratch.

Model Answer 3: Why did people accuse others of witchcraft in early modern England?

People accused others of witchcraft because they believed that the Devil and harmful magic were real. In a strongly religious society, sudden illness, failed crops or dead animals could be interpreted as signs of evil. Without modern medical explanations, witchcraft could seem like a possible cause of misfortune.

Local tensions were also important. Accusations often followed arguments between neighbours. For example, if a poor woman asked for food, was refused, and later something bad happened, neighbours might connect the events. This does not mean the accusation was true. It shows how fear and coincidence could become evidence in people's minds.

Gender and poverty also mattered. Many accused people were older or poorer women, especially if they had a poor reputation or depended on neighbours for charity. During crises, such as the Civil War period in East Anglia, fear and weak authority made accusations more likely. Therefore, witchcraft accusations were caused by a mixture of belief, fear, poverty, gender, local conflict and unreliable evidence.

Model Answer 4: How far did ideas about science and evidence change in the seventeenth century?

Ideas about science and evidence changed significantly in the seventeenth century, especially among natural philosophers. The Royal Society, founded in 1660, encouraged observation, experiment and sharing results. Its members wanted claims about nature to be tested rather than accepted only because ancient writers or powerful people said they were true. This was an important step in the development of scientific thinking.

There were also practical signs of change. People collected death statistics in Bills of Mortality, used instruments such as microscopes and air pumps, and discussed experiments in letters and meetings. These methods encouraged careful evidence and repeatable testing.

However, change was not complete. Many people still believed in miasma, divine punishment, astrology and witchcraft. Even educated people could mix religious belief with scientific investigation. Medicine still used older ideas such as the four humours. Overall, ideas changed a lot in some educated circles, but older beliefs continued widely. The best judgement is that the seventeenth century saw growing evidence-based thinking, not an overnight scientific revolution for everyone.

Model Answer 5: How useful are eyewitness-style sources for studying the Great Fire?

Eyewitness-style sources are useful because they can show what people saw, heard and felt during the Great Fire. A diary-style account might describe smoke, heat, fear, crowds and people carrying belongings to the river. This helps historians understand the human experience of the Fire, not just the number of buildings destroyed.

They can also provide precise details about events as they unfolded. Samuel Pepys's real diary is valuable because he lived in London and recorded his reactions close to the time. Such sources can reveal confusion, rumours and emergency decisions.

However, eyewitness sources have limitations. One person could only see part of the event. They might misunderstand what was happening, exaggerate, repeat rumours or focus on their own social group. A diary was not written with complete knowledge of the whole city. Therefore, eyewitness sources are useful, but historians should compare them with maps, official records, archaeology and other accounts.

15. Final Revision Checklist

• I know the key dates: Great Plague 1665, Great Fire 1666, Royal Society 1660, Hopkins's witch-hunting 1645-1647.
• I can explain key people including Samuel Pepys, Charles II, Matthew Hopkins, Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke.
• I can describe the key events of the Great Plague and Great Fire.
• I can explain causes of plague spread, including crowding, rats, fleas, movement and poor sanitation.
• I can explain causes of the Fire spreading, including timber buildings, narrow streets, dry weather, wind and delayed firebreaks.
• I can explain consequences of the Plague, including death, fear, quarantine and disruption.
• I can explain consequences of the Fire, including destruction, homelessness, rebuilding rules and more brick and stone.
• I can identify change and continuity in medicine, public health and beliefs.
• I can explain why witchcraft accusations happened without mocking early modern people.
• I can discuss gender, poverty, local tensions, religion and weak evidence in witchcraft cases.
• I can compare medieval and early modern explanations of disease and disaster.
• I can explain why the Royal Society and Scientific Revolution mattered.
• I can use source skills: content, inference, evidence, provenance, usefulness and limitations.
• I can compare interpretations of the Fire, witchcraft and scientific change.
• I can answer exam questions using clear points, precise evidence and explanation.